Explain transcription and translation in protein synthesis.

Protein synthesis occurs in two main stages: transcription and translation, both of which convert genetic information into functional proteins.

Transcription is the first step and takes place in the nucleus. During this process, a specific segment of DNA (a gene) is copied into messenger RNA (mRNA). The enzyme RNA polymerase binds to the DNA, unwinds it, and synthesizes a complementary RNA strand using one of the DNA strands as a template. The mRNA formed carries the genetic code from the nucleus to the cytoplasm.

Translation is the second step and occurs in the cytoplasm at ribosomes. The mRNA sequence is read in sets of three nucleotides called codons. Each codon specifies a particular amino acid.

Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules bring the corresponding amino acids to the ribosome. The anticodon of tRNA pairs with the codon on mRNA, ensuring correct amino acid placement. The ribosome then forms peptide bonds between amino acids, building a polypeptide chain.

This process continues until a stop codon is reached, signaling the end of protein synthesis. The newly formed polypeptide then folds into a functional protein.

Overall, transcription transfers genetic information from DNA to RNA, and translation converts that information into a specific protein sequence essential for cellular function.